History                                                                                Pictures of Montenegro 

For a small country, Montenegro has an immensely complexe history. But bearing in mind that it sits in the middle of the Balkans, has been on or near the front lines of a series of more or less despotic empires including the Roman, the Ottoman, the Austro-Hungarian, the Napoleonic, the Nazi and the Sovjet, and that its people are said to take seriously only God and war, this may not be much of a surprise.


Illyrians, Romans and Slavs

Signs of Balkan civilisation date back to the 7th millennium Bc. Agriculture, pottery and copper smelting supported the establishment of small towns and by the end of the 4 th millennium Bc there was active trade with eastern Europe. By 600 Bc the Illyrians were settled in what is now Montenegro, utilising iron technology for both swords and ploughshares and dealing extensively with the Greek city states. By 400 Bc Celts were moving in from the north, closely followed by the Romans. In Ad 9 the Illyrians were subdued though the territory remained Illyrium. The Romans built roads, aqueducts, forts and all the usual trappings of their empire.
When the Emperor Theodosius died in Ad 395, the Roman Empire split into two, roughly along the lines of the present Montenegro - Albania border and up the Sava and Danube rivers. Rome lost control of the eastern half, which became the Byzantine Empire. The western half remained Roman. The Goths and the Huns displaced the Romans over the next 200 years, but the overall military masters of the region were the Avars and Bulgars under the nominal rule of Constantinople.
During the 6th century Ad Slavs from Poland and the Baltic, attracted partly by the Mediterranean climate, moved into the province of Provalis. They found Roman settlements already established at what are now Kotor, Budva, Ulcinj Bar and Duklija, and were gradually converted to Christianity by the existing populace. One can still trace many hundreds of Baltic and Polish place names, rivers and mountains which correspond to those in the Balkans.
In Ad 625 the Emperor Heraclius formed an alliance with two of the stronger slavic tribes already in the region, the Croats and the Serbs, who took control of the Dalmation coast. Because Dalmatia was rugged and lacking in minerals, the interior became something of a haven for refugee tribes living mostly as extended family groups (zadruge) governed by a fairly democratically selected patriarch ( zupan ). Sometimes several of these zadruge would unite under a senior zupan who might even adopt the title of King. The first Serb mini-state duly emerged in about 850 under a senior zupan called Vlastimir who resisted Bulgar expansion and ackonwledge Byzantine suzeraintly. This encouraged the Byzantine Emperor Michael to undertake the religious conversion of the Serbs, sending Cyril the Evangelist to translate the scriptures into the local dialect and improvise a new script, now known respectively as Old Church Slavonic and Cyrillic.

The Kingdom of Duklija

Following Vlastimir's death there was a period of general disorganistion, but in 1017 his nephew, King Vojislav, set up the vassal state of Duklija (or Doclea) named after the Illyrian tribe who once lived there. In 1042 he beat the Byzantines at the battle of Bar and won independence. By 1077 his son Mihailo governed a kingdom which included most of Montenegro, Albania and Hercegovina and he was acknowledge by Pope Gregory 7 as Sclavorum Regi - King of the Slavs.
The kingdom of Duklija gradually weakened until in 1169 a senior zupan called Stefan Nemanja established a vassal state in the region of Raska. His son Stefan Provencani ('first crowned') became the first real Serb king in 1217. The dynasty steadily expanded until the ninth king, Stefan Dusan (1331-55), ruled over an area including Montenegro, Albania, Macedonia, much of Bosnia and Serbia as well as Epirus and Thessaly. A key to this expansion was the family succes in promoting religious and cultural cohesion under the Orthodox Church and in codifying the law.
 
The arrival of the Ottomans

The Ottoman Empire established a foothold on mainland Europe in 1354 and began to expand northwards. Slav leaders were disunited and competitive, constantly making and breaking alliances with the Turks and with each other. The Turks regarded all Muslims as belonging to a single community pf the faithfull and so anyone could join the ruling group by converting to Islam.
The Ottomans took Serbia at the battle of Kosovo in 1389, occupied Bosnia in 1463 and Hercegnovina in 1483. The Crnojevic dynasty, who by now ruled most of present-day Montenegro, moved the capital from Zabljak on Skadar Lake to the hill town of Cetinje in 1482 to resist the invaders more easily. The territory began for the first time to be known as Crna Gora and, though its boundaries had contracted, it established traditions of independent sovereignty and culture. For tactical reasons King Stefan concluded an alliance with Venice in 1455, and Cetinje became the home of the first printing press in southern Europe in 1494.  

Map of the Ottoman Empire in 1699 

The prince-bishops

In 1516 there was a major constitutional shift in Montenegro. The last of the Crnojevic dynasty married a Venetian and retired to Venice, conferring the succesion upon the prince-bishop (vladika) of Cetinje. This formal link between church and state ensured national stability, lending the vladika authority in the eyes of the peasants and minimising the risk of competitive alliances between local leaders and the Turks. War with the Ottoman Empire continued, but although Cetinje sacked in 1623, 1687 and again in 1712, the Turks were never able to subjugate the Montenegrins.
As Orthodox bishops the vladikas were required to be celibrate, and initially the succesion was elective, but when Danilo 1 acceded in 1696 he won the right to nominate his own heir. Subsequently the hereditary theocracy remained vested in the Petrovic clan, invariably passing from uncle to nephew.
In july 1712 Danilo won a notable victory over a 35.000 man Turkish army at Carev Laz. Five thousand Turks died and the battle was a landmark in Montenegro's Wars of Independence.
As well as being a succesful general. Danilo was a succesful diplomat. As venetian power declined, he paid a visit in 1715 to Peter the Great. The resulting Russian alliance brought financial aid and modest territorial gains, but Danilo was still outshone by Petar 1 Petrovic Njegos, who acceded in 1782. He defeated the Turks in a series of battles, using guerilla tactics to compensate for his much smaller forces. By 1799 the Ottoman Porte had had enough and formally recognised Montenegrin Independence.

Montenegro and Russia versus Napoleon

In 1806 Montenegro and Russia combined to beat Napoleon at Kotor, then Montenegro won unilateral battles against him at Cavtat and Herceg Novi. The montenegrins also beat the French in Kotor Bay, utilising ammunition supplied by Britain of Russia, but the subsequent Congress of Vienna in 1814 nevertheless gave Kotor Bay to Austria. Despite the part they had played in the downfall of Napoleon, Montenegro still lacked acces to the sea they so badly wanted. When Petar 1 died in 1830, he was proclaimed saint of the Montenegrin Orthodox Church, St Petar of Cetinje ( Sveti Petar Cetinskji). The early 19th century saw considerable social change in Montenegro, especially after the succesion of Petar 2 Petrovic Njegos. By general consensus Petar 2 was the most outstanding of all Montenegrins rulers and he laid the foundations of the subsequent kingdom and indeed of modern Montenegro. He organised a central government comprising a Senate, a 32-man Guardia, organised taxes, despite predictable opposition from individualistic Montenegrins, and he was an epic poet whose magnum opus, The Mountain Wreath
, distelled in the vernacular the essence of Montenegrin wisdom and philosophy.
Petar 2 died in 1851, but his nephew Danilo 2 was already betrothed and therefore could not succeed him as vladika. Instead he became gospodar (prince) and by ensuring that this remained a hereditary position he effectively separated church and state. In 1860 he was assassinated at Kotor, quite possibly at Austrian instigation, and succeeded by the 19-year-old Nikola Petrovic, who had spent the previous two years being educated in Venice.

Prince Nikola Petrovic

The francophile court which had sent Nikola to Venice favoured French language and French etiquette. Nikola shared this admiration, although his wife was a good Montenegrin. Together they had three sons and nine daughters. Six of the latter married royal or aristocratic Europeans, including Grand Duke Petar of Russia and King Victor Emmanuel of Italy, and became invaluable political assets. This was insufficient however, to keep the Turks quiet, and after intermittent series of wars and treaties Montenegro and Serbia jointly declared war on Turkey in 1876, with Russia joining a year later.
Between 1876 and 1878 Prince Nikola led the Montenegrin army to a series of victories. The Congress of Berlin in 1878 confirmed most of the resulting terriorial gains, icluding the towns of Podgorica, Bar, Ulcinj and Niksic. Montenegro virtually doubled in size and its new borders were internationally recognised. It had acces to the sea at last.
Nikola was also a social reformer. He introduced free elementary education and Girls Institute for elementary teachers, an agricultural college, post and telegraph offices, anetwork of roads and railways and freedom of the press. Foreighn capital, especially Italian, flooded in; business boomed and a number ef embassies opened in Cetinje.
In 1910 parliament proclaimed Nikola king. But 1912 saw the start of the Balkan wars against Turkey. Montenegro was again victorious and the Treaty of London brought more territorial gains on the Albanian border, but the Montenegrins paid a high price in casualties.
    
       

World War 1

When World War 1 broke out in 1914, Montenegro immediately invaded the recently established state of Albania and then, in support of Serbia, declared war on Austria. This was a mistake as by late 1915 both countries had been occupied by Austro-Germans troops. Most of the Serbian army escaped to Corfu and lived to fight another day, but the Montenegrins army did not stage a tactical retreat, unlike King Nikola who took some of his ministers to Rome and put himself under the protection of his son-in-law, the king of Italt.
In 1918 King Petar of Serbia, another son-in-law of Nikola, exploited the post-war chaos to enter Montenegro with his troops. At first the Serbs were welcomed as liberators and allies in the expectation that the Montenegrin goverment would be restored as part of new Confederation of Slavic States. But when Serbia's role as an army of occupation became clear and Serbia announced the annexation of Montenegro, Montenegrins staged a national uprising on the Orthodox Christmas, January 7 1919. Nikola died in Antibes in 1921 (though in 1989 his remains, along with those of his queen, were reinterred in Cetinje in the Chapel of Cipur) but this Montenegrin War continued until 1926 and only ended because the leaders believed the promises of the Allies to restore liberty and independence. Lloyd Georgee, Poincare and Wilson all publicy pledged Montenegrio become the only Allied country to lose ist freedom as a result of World War 1. Emigration, especially to the Usa, accelerated. 

Map of the Balkans in 1878 and after World War 1

The birth of Jugoslavia

Between the two world wars Montenegro disappeared from the map and suffered from malign neglect at the hands of Serbia, which turned itself into Jugoslavia in 1929. The assassination of Yugoslavia's King Alexander by a Croat in 1934 and his replacement by the Regent Prince Paul, uncle of King Petar 2, made little difference to centrists Belgrade regime. An effective programme of land reform turned Jugoslavia into a reasonably prosperous country of small farmers. As Germany under Hitler led the inter-war European economic revival, he deliberately builts links to Jugoslavia, and by 1938 53 % of Yugoslav exports went there. Following the Anschluss - Hitler's annexation of Austria - that year, Yugoslavia worked hard to maintain its political independence in the face of German pressure to join the Axis. The invasions of Czechoslovakia and, by the Italians, Albania added to the pressure, as did the 1939 Nazi-Sovjet non-agression pact. In march 1941 Prince Paul finally caved in and signed the Tripartite Pact with Germany and Italy.

World War 2 and the Partisans

The populair response was one of outrage, leading to a bloodless coup fronted by the air force. The regent was exiled and King Petar 2's immediate accesion was proclaimed by the Government of National Unity. Within a month Germay invaded and Petar fled to London with his Government in Exile. Yugoslavia was split up and shared between Germany, Italy, Hungary and Bulgaria. Most of Montenegro was handed to the Italians, the rest to Italian-ruled Albania. An ill-starred Italian attempt to restore a puppet monarchy in Montenegro was short-lived. An enlarged and autonomous Croatia under Ante Pavelic and his Ustasa movement adopted a policy of extreme racial purifacation, exterminating millions of Jews, gypsies and Serbs. The rump of the Royal Yugoslav Army went into hiding and formed the Chetniks under Dragoljub Mihailovic. The third and most significant force was the Partisans led by Josip Broz using the nom de guerre of Tito.
These three military groups were coming from totally different directions. Ustasa troops acted as little more than part of the Axis armies. The objectives of the Chetniks were to maintain the prospect of a reunified Yugoslavia which could be handed back to King Petar when the war finally ended. The Partisans, on the other hand, waged all-out guerilla war almost regardless of casualties of reprisals, aimed both taking some pressure off the beleaguered Sovjet Union and establishing a Communist State in post-war Yugoslavia. Their succes in harassing the Axis can be jugded by the savagely high reprisal tariff of 50 executed Yugoslavs for every wounded Axis soldier and 150 executed Yugoslavs for every killed Axis soldier. Inevitably all three groups clashed with each other, especially the Ustase and the Partisans. Britain did what it could do to support resistance but initially the shortage of supplies and transport meant that support was largely moral. At first Churchill and the SOE (Special Operations Executive) inclined instinctively towards the Royalist Chetniks, but as it became increasingly obvious that only the Partisans were operating effectively, so British and American assistance swung behind Tito. By early 1944 all the Allied backing was going to him and the presence since 1941 of a British military mission on the ground (albeit a small one), led first by Bill (later Sir William) Deakin and then by Fitzroy (later Sir Fitzroy) Maclean, gave Britain something of a unique relationship.
Montenegro's relatively isolated position and mountainouos interior together with the strenght of the local Communist Party and the country's warlike traditions, made it ideal operating zone for the Partisans. When Italy surrended in 1943 the Partisans in Montenegro were even better placed as they took over a huge quantities of Italian weapons and ammunition.
By the summer of 1944 the end of the war was in sight. Tito met Churchill in Naples in August and then flew without notice to Moscow. There, plans were laid for the liberation of Yugoslavia. With Russian assistance the Partisans liberated Belgrade in October and quickly took possesion of the rest of the country.


Tito becomes president

The partisans were now in an envialbe position of power. They had 800.000 men in uniform. an effective civil administration and occupying troops. King Petar unwillingly agreed not to return until there had been a plebiscite on the monarchy, though three members of the London Government in Exile joined the Belgrade government under Prime Minister Tito. In November 1945, in a high poll, 90% of voters backed a new constiution setting up the Federal People's Republic of Yugoslavia. Full communist control was imposed and State Security Service (the UDBA) ensured that there was no meaningfull opposition. Partly as a reward for its heroic role in wartime resistance, Montenegro became one of the six republics in the new Yugoslavia and acquired additional territory along the Dalmatian coast. The other republics were Serbia, Croatia, Bosnia-Hercegovina, Macedonia and Slovenia. With six langauges (Serbian, Croatian, Macedonian, Slovenian, Albanian and Hungarian) and three religions (Roman Catholic, Orthodox and Muslim) the new country face a complex rebirth. But it was also second only to USSR in terms of power in eastern Europe. Yugoslavia expected recognition for their heroic resistance to Hitler. But Stalin seemed to regard Tito as a potential rival on the international stage. In 1948 he summoned representative of Yugoslavia and Bulgaria to Moscow to reprimand them for the independence of their policies. Bulagaria submitted but Tito replied with his famous letter about different roads to socialism. By 1949 East and West Europe were divided by the Iron Curtain and Yugoslavia had been expelled from the Communist Bloc.

Post Tito : The fragmentation of Yugoslavia

Tito devoted much of his energy to establishing himself as a leader of non-aligned movement and Yugoslavia prospered well enough economically, particularly in the field of tourism. The six republics enjoyed a fair degree of autonomy but development was uneven and in many respects Montenegro lagged behind. When Tito died in May 1980 the country began to fragment. Foreign debt and ethnic tension both grew. By 1991 inter-republic relations were tense and Slovenia and Croatia, followed by Macedonia, all withdrew from the Federation. In croatia the situation was especially grave with the revival of Ustasa nationalism and the consequent repression of the Serb minority. In May 1992 a UN protective force was introduced but by 1995 over 200.000 Serbs has been forced to leave the territory.
In Bosnia-Hercegovina the Muslim and Croat populations wanted to secede from the Federation but the Serbs wanted to stay. This was a black period in Yugoslav history, involving civil war, atrocities, and widespread bloodshed. In 1992 Bosnia's independence was recognised. And then there were two; Montenegro and Serbia jointly proclaimed the new Federal Republic of Jugoslavia in April 1992. Each of them had its own president, its own legislature and sovereignty over all matters not specifically assigned to the federal government.

The Milosevic years

Slobodan Milosevic, who had been president od Serbia for ten years, took over as president of the Federation in 1997. He continued the policy of restricting the rights of ethnic Albanians in the autonomous region of Kosovo, which provoked increasingly effective insurrection by the Kosovo Liberation Army. In March 1998, the Jugoslav army launched a counter-offensive and by the autumn the Kosovan force had been largely eliminated. NATO tried unsuccesfully to mediate and in March 1999 began a series of air strikes against targets in Montenegro, Serbia, Kosovo and the autonomous region of Vojvodina. Milosevic made no concessions and forced some 300.000 Kosovans out of their territory and into Bosnia, Albania and Macedonia.
NATO then deployed the Kosovo Force (KFOR) and Kosovo became a United Nations protectorate. The only safe haven offered to the Kosovan refugees was in Montenegro, where 100.000 of them were settled.
In October 2000 Milosevic was overthrown and replaced as federal president by Vojislav Kostunica. He called parliamentary elections, persuaded the United Nations to re-admit Yugoslavia and established an interim coalition government.
 

Montenegro today

In 2002 the two remaining constituents of former Yugoslavia agreed form a new loose confederation, to be known henceforward as the Union of Serbia and Montenegro (Scg). The constitutional charter of this alliance was implemented in February 2003, indicating a firm intention towards eventual integration into the European Union (EU). The Union will succeed the Federal Republic of Yugoslavia (FRY) in the United Nations and other international bodies.
The two states, each with its own elected prime minister, will be broadly autonomous while preserving some joint ministries, namely defence, foreign affairs, human rights, and internal trade, but retaining separate economies customs services and currencies (Montenegro adopted the euro when is was first introduced; Serbia has retained the dinar). In 2006, Montenegro will be constitutionally able to hold a referendum on seceding from the Union, and proceeding with a view to joining the EU independently. At present Montenegrins are fairly equally divided on the advantages of independence, with a small majority in favour of going it alone. Serbia, too, is split on issue.
After winning an absolute endorsement in the parliamentary elections of October 2002, Milo Djukanovic stepped down from the presidency and was subsequently elected Prime Minister of Montenegro in January 2003. His "Coalition for a European Montenegro", comprising representatives of all ethnic groups - his own Democratic Party of Socialist (DPS), the Social Democratic Party (SDP), the people's Party (SNP), the People's Unity and the Civil Party - held 39 of the 75 seats. Pedrag Bulatovic's Pro-Yugoslavia Coalition for Changes', made up of the Socialist People's Party (SNP), the Serb People's Party (SNS) and the People's Party, won 30 seats. Of the remaining seats, four went to the pro-independence Montenegrin Liberal Alliance (LS), and two to the ethnic Albanians. The Prime Minister of Serbia is Zoran Zivkovic.
The future now bodes well for Montenegro to sail smoothly out of her doldruk decade of isolation and frustation. Further democratic progress, prospects of continued privatisation and fresh international investments initiatives look assured. And which will be the first Western hotel group to go for gold ?
 
 


























 
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Historic King Nikola Video A
Historic King Nikola Video B

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Danilo Petrovic Njegos (1697-1735)

Born in 1670. Metropolitan and ruler of Montenegro. The founder of the Petrovic Njegos dynasty. In the text written on the manuscript gospel, his gift to Serb Patriarchate of Pec, in 1732, Danilo proudly expressed himself as Danil Njegos, the bishop of cetinje, the leader of the Serb Land.


Sava Petrovic Njegos (1735-1781)

Born in c. 1700. Metropolitan and ruler of Montenegro. When the Serb Patriarchate of Pec was, under pressure of Greek clergy, banned by Turks in 1766, in the name of Serb bishops Sava wrote to Metropolitan of Moscow, informed him that "Serb Nation is under hard slavery" and therefore asked Russian Holy Synod to help the restoration of Serb Patriarchate. He also asked Russian Empress to protect serbs from the greek and turkish intruding and said "we are ready to pay Russia in Blood".


Vasilije Petrovic Njegos (1750-1766)

Born in 1709. Metropolitan and ruler of Montenegro. Ruled with Sava. He was convinced that Montenegro, with Russian help, has to play crucial role in the restoration of the Serb Empire. In his book "History of Montenegro", he listed Serb bishops and put himself above the others. In the "Ode to Nemanja", the founder of medieval Serb dynasty, Vasilije evokes Serb past with the words" Holy serb kings aris", and adds "Serb bishops do not sleep, but pray to god serb empire to restore."


Petar I Petrovic Njegos (1782-1830)

Born in 1747. Metropolitan and ruler of Montenegro. During the Russian-Turkish war in 1807, Petar I Petrovic sent Russian General of Danube army a letter with the proposal to Russian Emperor about restoration of Serb Empire. According to the proposal,russian emperor would be recognized as the emperor of the serbs and the metropolitan of Montenegro would be his assitant. The leading role in the restoration of Serb empire belongs to Montenegro. 


Petar II Petrovic Njegos (1830-1851)

Born in 1813. Metropolitan and ruler of Montenegro. The father of modern Serb national identity. The author of the most patriotic Serb epic "The Mountain Wreath".In the year of 1848, the Government of Serbia sent him the proposal of unification of Serbs, Croats and Bulgarians. Petar II Petrovic agreed but said "The Serbdom has to unite first. I will, then, to my patriarchate of Pec and serbian prince to Prizren. Spiritual authority to me and secular to him, over the nation free and united".


Danilo Petrovic Njegos (1851-1860)

Born in 1826. He divided spiritual and secular authorities and became the Prince. His letters to Princes of Serbia, Aleksandar Karadjordjevic and Mihailo Obrenovic, and his deed, were always inspired with the idea of Serb unification. "In front of the tent I'll serve the king if serbdom would be never united and unity of Serbs reached or let prince Mihailo just start, I'll join him with my Montenegrins to liberate the Serb Nation, with me even as an odinary soldier".


Nikola Petrovic Njegos  (1860-1918)

Born in 1841, died in 1921. In 1910, he was proclaimed as a King of Montenegro. His entire political work was inspired only with one idea, the restoration of Serb Empire. He saw himself as a new Emperor Dusan, as a rightful descendent of medieval Serb Throne. The Great war (1876-78) was his revenge for the Kosovo battle in 1389. His message to Montenegrins in Herzegovina, in 1876," Under Murad V Serb empire was destroyed under Murad V it has to rise again. This is my wish and wish of all of us as well as the wish of almighty God".